Algorithm

A chain of instructions that allows one to arrive at a solution appropriate for the situation in question. For example, an algorithm can regulate what steps should be taken to deal with a given issue or what should be done when certain conditions occur. Today, one of the most common contexts in which this concept is referenced is the selection of content in social media news feeds. From all the content published on the particular platform, algorithms regulate the choice of those pieces that might be most engaging and interesting for the particular user. Among other considerations, the selection of content is based on what the user has been interested in in the past and what type of content currently attracts similar individuals. Content recommendation algorithms can have various goals in terms of user behavior. One of the most important goals is getting the user to spend as much time on the website as possible.

Alternative media

Media whose principles differ from those of the mainstream media. The difference can be in the agenda (what the media outlet chooses to report on), relations with state and society structures, and content creation approaches, including the understanding of journalistic standards. The term “alternative media” does not refer to any particular media format and can exist in print, electronic (radio and TV), and digital formats. Alternative media tend to be non-commercial, and their purpose is to inform their target audiences about topics that are not covered on the agenda of the dominant media at all, or the coverage by mainstream media does not represent the point of view of certain groups of society. For example, a particular subculture may have its own media that report on the things important to it from the perspective of members of that subculture. Such media can be created by activists of an issue to promote a particular message or viewpoint. Sometimes, the materials of such media may also contain false information and manipulation, and thew work of such media may not conform with the professional standards of journalism. However, the problem of information quality does not characterize all alternative media as a media category.

App

A program that allows performing certain functions on a device, such as mobile phone or personal computer. There are various specific apps for editing documents (for example, Microsoft Word), viewing e-mail, using various social media (such as Facebook or TikTok), and performing other activities. Web browsers are also apps.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

The ability of devices and programs to operate autonomously and make decisions in situations where these systems have not been given specific instructions in advance on how to act. Artificial intelligence is intelligence created by humans to be used in a technological system. Artificial intelligence systems acquire their operational capabilities through machine learning. The learning usually takes place by inputting a large amount of information into the system, and based on this, the program develops the ability to recognize the patterns in the data. As a result, the system is able to work with, based on similarity, the elements that were not present in the information used in the training. For example, if many pictures of cats are presented to the system during the training, the system will be able to recognize a cat in a new and previously unseen picture.
Today, many different artificial intelligence systems exist. In public discourse, artificial intelligence currently often appears in the context of large language models. These models are trained on large volumes of text that (to a limited extent) represent human knowledge and the grammatical structures of natural language and are able to process and respond to user requests. Based on such models, chat robots (chatbots) are created, which can maintain a dialogue with users and answer various questions. However, since these models are incapable of human-like reasoning, they cannot evaluate the veracity of the information they provide and are prone to errors. This limitation results from the principle that artificial intelligence systems make decisions by making guesses based on the results of statistical analysis of the material used in training. For example, when responding to a question, such a system will answer with words that, based on the training material, have the highest probability of being related.
One of the most popular services of this type is ChatGPT. Also, some systems are trained not only on text but also with visual materials and can create images or videos based on a textual description.

Astroturfing

An expression of opinion or support that resembles civic participation or an expression of public opinion but is actually an orchestrated attempt to manipulate public perception and influence decision-makers (such as politicians). Such tactics are often used by companies or political organizations that may organize and sponsor associations, movements, and other organizations, which then publicly express the opinion needed by the sponsors. In the online environment, trolls (see the concept in this dictionary) can also act on behalf of interested parties, and each troll can manage several social media accounts to give the impression that many people are expressing the opinion in question. The name comes from the artificial turf brand AstroTurf and, as such, refers to fake grassroots activity.

Ban

Prohibition to participate in any group or activity or exclusion of a member of a group or activity. The term usually applies to online environments, such as game communities, social media, or discussion groups. Banning is carried out by participants with privileged (administrator) rights. Bans are being issued based on the violation of rules (including the unwritten ones) that govern the particular environment.

Blog

A website that contains posts in reverse chronological order (newest posts at the top) and is usually about a common topic. A blog is usually maintained by one person who chooses its thematic focus, but several people may also update a blog. Some blogs are online diaries whose authors document their lives and describe events and reflections. However, the news, opinions, and explanations related to a topic important to a broader audience – politics, sports, economy, technology, etc. – can also be covered in blogs. Blogs are a form of social media. They can be separate websites or part of blogging platforms – online services that allow anyone to create their own blog without technical knowledge of building and maintaining a website. Popular blogging platforms include WordPress, Blogger, Tumblr, and Medium.

Bots

Computer programs for autonomous performing of tasks. For example, a bot may be tasked to find or sort information according to pre-defined parameters, hold a conversation (chatbots), or distribute messages. The name comes from a shortened version of the word ‘robot,’ but unlike robots, bots often don’t necessarily involve complex technical solutions and may be relatively simple programs.
In the context of social media, bots are automated accounts that can be used to mass-distribute information in the interests of the bots’ owner. Often the task of bots is to amplify a message. For example, if an organization or an individual wants to make a statement or viewpoint more prominent in the online information environment, bots can be used to promote the respective message – to share it and comment on it and thus attract the attention of other users. Bots can also be used to target adversaries and ensure that opponents are drowned in critical responses to their messages. Bots can also be used to manipulate social media algorithms – for example, creating the impression that a particular topic is more popular than it actually is, thus making the given social media platform more likely to recommend the content in question to other users. Bots are often part of larger networks and centrally coordinated. Used like this, bots can be one of the tools of propagandists and manipulators. However, as a technological solution, bots are neither good nor bad – they can have both positive and negative uses.

Bulling

A form of regular physical and/or emotional abuse within a group (especially among students in a class or school). Bullying is a purposeful and repeated act of humiliating, intimidating, coercing, or otherwise causing distress to the attacker or attackers. What distinguishes it from other types of conflict is the power imbalance and strength in the relationship between the victim and the attacker. A related concept is mobbing, which refers to a similar phenomenon in the workplace. Bullying does not always take the form of a direct confrontation, and one of its manifestations is the social isolation of the victim – exclusion from the group, ignoring, not talking to him or her, and turning others against him or her. Bullying can also take place online (cyberbullying). This may be a continuation of violence that has emerged during offline interactions. Attackers may send aggressive messages to the victim, spread rumors, publish private information, etc. Unlike face-to-face violence, which is usually confined to a specific place and time (such as the school during the day), online bullies may be able to reach their victims around the clock. Bullying is a systematic problem, and to prevent it, the understanding and actions of the employees of the institutions involved (i.e., schools) are essential. They should educate the individuals about unacceptability, punish those who engage in it, and introduce support mechanisms that allow victims to seek help.

Cancel culture

A phrase that refers to the exclusion of someone from social or professional circles because of the person’s beliefs or actions. The phrase has a negative connotation and is usually used when one sees such ostracism as an unreasonably harsh response to the expression of an opinion that has a right to exist. Critics of cancel culture interpret it as an unjustified limitation of the freedom of expression. Cancelation can occur, for example, when an actor, athlete, or scientist loses contracts and career opportunities because he or she has said something that a particular segment of society deems unacceptable. Cancelation may include calls to go after individuals based on ideological differences. An opposite position is that people have the right to take action against those whose actions they deem to be wrongful, harmful, or otherwise unacceptable as a way of holding the perpetrators accountable for their choices.

Confirmation bias

The tendency of individuals to pay more attention to information that confirms their previous views and beliefs. Confirmation bias is manifested, for example, when an individual searches for and selects information: arguments in favor of an individual’s pre-existing beliefs may appear more plausible and attractive to him or her than arguments against. Such an outcome is exhibited most strongly in the context of issues that arouse emotional reactions or views that are deeply rooted in the individual’s worldview. Confirmation bias is fueled by the fact that people are psychologically inclined to want to be right. In addition, confirmation bias may happen unconsciously, and the individual may not perceive that he or she is making such an error.

Conspiracy theory

An explanation of an event or process that assumes the involvement of some hidden, powerful, and usually malevolent group of people in that event or process. Conspiracy theories explain the unplanned and accidental as the result of systematic and purposeful action of hidden forces. At the same time, conspiracy theories provide the believers with the sense that order and logic exist in the often chaotic and unpredictable world, and the theory in question theory thus may be perceived as allowing one to uncover what is “actually” happening. Sometimes they offer explanations on topics that are not fully understood or studied and about which reliable and verified information is lacking. The unavailability of such information prevents the theory from being empirically tested. However, it does not follow that a conspiracy theory, which replaces the missing information with assumptions, is the most plausible explanation in such a case. Conspiracy theories are also often constructed to make them impossible to refute. For example, it may be impossible to articulate what kind of evidence (if they existed) would make conspiracy theorists change their minds. The supporters of such theories tend to put the onus on non-believers to prove that what the theory states actually does not exist. For example, a conspiracy theory that a secret government runs the world requires proving that what is not objectively observable (the secret government) indeed does not exist. This task, of course, is impossible, but the conspiracy theory interprets the inability to directly observe such a government as an argument that such a government is hiding its existence. Conspiracy theories are often rooted in the beliefs and expectations that arise from people’s worldviews rather than objective evidence.

Credibility

The quality that makes information trustworthy and reliable. Based on it, the information may be considered to be accurate and to be taken seriously. Information that can be credible if an individual himself or herself has been able to verify directly, through collecting information from various sources or by examining it empirically. Additionally, the credibility of information can be deduced if a source or distributor takes responsibility for it and this source and distributor is reputable (i.e., is known to disseminate accurate information).

Critical thinking

The process of evaluating the available evidence, statements, etc., to arrive at a rational and justified judgment about the truth and reliability of this information. Through critical thinking allows to identify errors in reasoning and logic, data manipulation, gaps in evidence, and other flaws. Critical thinking helps protect an individual from the influence of misleading messages. However, critical thinking is not about criticizing everything and believing nothing.

Deepfake

An artificially created image or video that combines elements from different sources. For example, a video of one person saying something can be combined with a video of another person to create a video that appears to show that the other person is using his or her voice and facial expressions to say what was actually said by the first person. Another example of a deepfake is transferring a representation of one person’s face or other body parts to an image or video of a different person. Deep fakes are created using artificial intelligence technologies that have made the complex actions of creating and blending images and videos relatively widely available today. Deepfakes are sometimes used for entertainment purposes, but this approach has dangers when it comes to propaganda. Propagandists may create the impression that a public figure has made a claim that he or she has not, and this may either damage that person’s reputation or influence the audience’s choices (for example, in an election).

Digital communication

Communication (exchange of information, maintenance of relationships, conveyance and reception of messages) that takes place in the digital environment – online, by using digital technologies (computer, phone).

Digital security

Security measures that need to be observed in the digital environment. They include actions related to protecting communication devices (phones, telephones) and accounts (social media, e-mail, bank) against unauthorized access. To strengthen a device’s protection, one should regularly update its software, use an antivirus app, and protect the device with a secure, hard-to-guess password, fingerprint scan, or other means. Physical access to the device by others needs to be prevented. The same password should not be used for different accounts so that in case of theft of such a password, an attacker does not gain access to other accounts. Two-step authentication must be enabled (in this case, when logging in to the account, alongside the password, a one-time code is required, which is sent as a text message or displayed in the mobile app). Clicking on suspicious and unfamiliar web links, especially those sent to the user by unfamiliar senders, should be avoided. Digital security also requires being critical of information sources that encourage you to do something (invest, transfer money, enter account access data, install some software on your device) to avoid possible fraud (see phishing in this glossary).

Disinformation

Type of false information.Disinformation refers to deliberately false information intended to achieve a particular effect or cause a specific behavior in the audience. Information may be distorted, essential details withheld, and unfounded claims made.

Fact

A unit of information that refers to something true, actually existing. Facts are empirically verifiable (observable objectively with human senses). Facts are independent of beliefs and opinions.

Fact-checking

Evaluating the truth of certain statements or claims. Every media user can check the facts by comparing what is said in the outlet consumed by him or her with the information found in reliable sources or by researching the origins of the given statement. Fact-checking is also a genre of journalism in which journalists examine statements- usually made by publicly known persons, such as politicians, or claims that have gained attention on social media. Fact-checking journalists assess the truthfulness of the given statement and provide evidence that supports such an assessment. This is one of the ways in which the spread of false information in the information environment can be limited.

Fake news

False information that imitates the format and style of the news by journalistic media outlets. Information with the appearance of news stories that is not based on true claims or facts. Today, this concept is often applied to a much wider variety of information in which someone has seen some flaws. For example, some apply this term to information that has nothing to do with news – such as false claims someone has posted on social media or rumors. Some politicians use it to refer to real news from legitimate outlets with which they disagree. Since cause today the meaning of the concept of fake news is blurred and it is not always clear what is meant by it in which situation, it is preferable to avoid using the term altogether. Instead, one should choose the terms that more accurately depict what the problem is with the particular piece of information: propaganda, false facts, rumors, manipulation, etc.

False balance

Bias of giving equal weight to all parties involved in an event or discussion. It can be encountered in journalism stories as well as elsewhere. Different opinions exist on many topics, but not all are equally supported by facts and current knowledge. The task of journalists is not only to convey different points of view but also to understand the topic themselves to such an extent that they are able to determine which of the various positions existing in society on the relevant issue are the most prominent and justified. Accordingly, these positions merit being included in the stories. Treating all opinions as equally important creates the impression in the audience that there is more ambiguity than actually exists on a given issue. For example, some people believe that the earth is flat. However, when journalists write about the shape of the planet, there is no reason to include such opinions, because they are questionable. False balance may give the impression that the question of whether the earth is round is not entirely settled. The same is true of climate change: although most scientists have concluded that it is occurring and caused by humans, some people and organizations disagree with these conclusions for various reasons. Putting their opinion side by side with findings by scientists and without providing the necessary context can create the false impression that the issue is still not settled and there is a lot of genuine disagreement and confusion about it.

Filtering

Selection of information by weeding out the irrelevant or unreliable. The ability to find, evaluate, and select the necessary information is one of the basic skills of media literacy. It allows one to keep up with current developments, solve various problems that require advice or instructions, and use one’s time more efficiently so that one does not have to spend it on unneeded information. Information filtering helps avoid information overload – a situation in which there is more information than the individual is able to perceive and evaluate, which leads to the inability to make decisions. The importance of filtering is increased because the amount of available information is constantly growing, and many interested parties create and distribute information and want to attract people’s attention by various means. People therefore need to be able to decide what information is worth spending their time and cognitive resources on. Effective information filtering is possible when an individual has defined what information he or she wants and is able to use the means at his or her disposal to select this information and reduce the proportion of unimportant information in his or her environment. One of the ways in which filtering is possible in social media is by following information sources that are relevant to the individual, unsubscribing from irrelevant ones, and also avoiding clicking on unimportant or low-quality information sources, thus not signaling the information recommendation algorithms that the individual wants to receive such information.

Haters (also anti-fans)

Individuals who strongly dislike something – a person (for example, a celebrity) or a collective, phenomenon, or object (for example, a music genre, band, or song) – express this dislike. Antifans may form groups based on a shared dislike, and their activities may include not only posting negative comments online but also spreading rumors, sending hateful messages to the subject of hate, disclosing his or her personal information, and other mean actions. Therefore, anti-fandom can also manifest as bullying (see the concept in this dictionary). However, any publicly expressed criticism, which may be justified, is not the same as aggression by haters.

Identity theft

The misappropriation of personally identifiable information allows one person to impersonate another person to perform unauthorized activities. Stolen can be identity documents (such as passports) and non-material information (state-issued ID numbers, passwords, internet bank login data, fingerprint information, digital signature, etc.). For example, a criminal can take out a loan in another person’s name, which the lender will expect from the victim. Identity theft can also be a way of trying to cover up the traces of someone else’s crime. The risks of identity theft can be reduced by following the principles of information security – including using secure passwords and two-step authentication, as well as not revealing sensitive information about yourself to others (identity document or bank card data) and keeping the digital devices and apps regularly updated and safe from viruses (see digital security in this glossary).

Influencers

Social media users who promote various products or brands to their followers for personal gain. Influencers create content that engages an audience. The content often centers around the influencer’s persona. The size of the audience and its other characteristics affect the influencer’s income. Followers of influencers may develop an emotional attachment to them. This increases followers’ trust in what influencers say and increases their receptiveness to advertising messages. However, the materials produced by influencers may be false and unverified as well as truthful, useful, or entertaining information. Therefore, the audience needs to be very careful when deciding whether to trust such information.

information

An aggregation of data or details on any subject. Based on information, knowledge can be created, but information itself is not knowledge. For information to become knowledge, a person must give it meaning, interpretation, and explanation. Unlike information, knowledge is directly applicable in creating something or explaining a process in question.

Internet

A global computer network where information can be transferred and various services accessed, including e-mail, chat, and file sharing. The information available on the Internet and the software that operates the services available on the Internet are located on servers – computers that transmit the requested information upon receiving a command. Although the terms “Internet” and “(World Wide) Web” (see the term in this glossary) tend to be used interchangeably, they differ. The Internet allows devices to transfer data, but the World Wide Web allows access to web pages. Many apps that enable accessing various services on a device, such as navigation or email, rely on the Internet rather than the Web. In contrast, browsing web pages by visiting addresses (such as www.google.com) takes place on the web and requires a web browser (see the term in this glossary).

Media literacy

A set of skills and competencies related to the ability to use media – access and evaluate, as well as create and disseminate information. Since the volume of information constantly grows, media literacy is critically important to be able to make justified decisions.

Misinformation

In contrast, misinformation is information that is not created or disseminated with the intent to cause harm but, due to the error or carelessness of the communicator, is incomplete and misleading and does not give the audience a complete and truthful picture of what is being communicated. The border between disinformation and misinformation is not always clear cut. Disinformation, after it has been purposefully created, may later be distributed by people who do not have harmful intentions and think that they are sharing truthful information.

News

A genre of journalism that reports on current events. In creating the news, the professional standards of journalism must be followed: the truth must be told, reliable sources must be used, information must be collected from all involved parties, and in case of contradictions, the validity of the opinions of the various parties must be evaluated. The reporter must be independent of the parties involved. In the news, the presentation of information is usually neutral. The news should be separated from the author’s personal opinion: journalists typically express their personal views in the comments and opinions section of the media. News has various standard categories. For example, domestic politics, public events, foreign policy, economy, sports, culture, entertainment, etc. Journalists use several criteria to judge whether an event is newsworthy—for example, timeliness, proximity, conflict, significance of the event to the audience, etc.

Open source

Software source code that is freely available for modification, reuse, and distribution. Source code refers to a set of instructions written by the programmer through which the specific piece of software is created, and its functionality is defined. If the source code is closed, others are not allowed to change the program and create new versions of it without the permission of the program author. Open-source programs are often built as non-commercial and public benefit projects and can be developed through a collaboration of different programmers. Popular open-source software includes the various Linux operating systems, Firefox web browser, and Libre Office, which is an alternative to Microsoft Office. In a broader sense, the term “open source” can be applied to other areas in which the processes, plans, blueprints, and other documentation of something are available and transparent to observers from the outside.

Opinion

A judgment, point of view, or statement that represents the views of a person or organization and their interpretation of the facts. The opinion is subjective and is not subject to fact-checking. However, the justification of an opinion can be evaluated. A statement of opinion may contain references to specific facts. These facts, in turn, can be verified, and if they are wrong (that is, they are not facts), it is possible that the opinion is based on false information and is therefore not valid. The opinion may also contain errors of logic and reasoning, and opinion can be checked for such problems. A justified opinion must be based on true facts, contain complete information, and rely on reasoning that is rooted in logic.

Phishing

A form of manipulation in which scammers extract the information they need from the victim or persuade the victim to do other activities, such as to install spyware on their device (see the term in this dictionary). An example of a phishing attack is an e-mail message the sender of which pretends to be a representative of a reputable company or institution and asks the addressee either to click on a link where personal data must be entered or to open an attachment that infects the victim’s computer. Phishers can use various means of communication, including phone calls and text messages. Scammers also distribute malicious QR codes, and after scanning such a code, the device may attempt to download malware or open a website that imitates a legitimate service. The term “phishing” is derived from fishing based on the similarity of action: the fisher (attacker) throws a hook with a bait that the fish (victim) fails to recognize as dangerous.

Platform

A service that connects suppliers and consumers of certain resources. Communication platforms (including social media such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok) connect various parties involved in information and communication activities, such as journalism media, politicians, and advertisers on the one hand and their audiences on the other. Likewise, platforms connect individuals who want to find each other, maintain contacts, and exchange information. In a broader sense, a platform is any infrastructure that allows third parties to spread messages or offer something to others. For example, mass media outlets are platforms that may allow certain people and organizations to promote themselves (for example, to advertise or express opinions) under certain circumstances. Marketplaces are platforms that enable sellers and buyers to meet. Computer operating systems (Windows, Linux) are platforms that can run software from various independent developers and users can run these.

Podcast

An audio recording that is centered on spoken words and can be listened to or downloaded on the Internet. Podcasts can be in a variety of genres and formats. For example, a podcast can be based on interviews, discussions, stories, etc. that are regularly produced by an author or a group of authors. Podcasts usually are published on websites or music streaming services (such as Spotify). For the audience, the experience of listening to podcasts is similar to that of the radio.

Propaganda

Messages designed to present a topic or issue in a way that is beneficial to one party and influences the views of an audience. Propaganda uses various manipulation techniques to create a specific impression. It can also include truthful information, but the messages are truthful only as long it suits the interests of the propagandist. To achieve the desired effect, other facts may be omitted, thereby changing the message, and certain interpretations may be emphasized. False information, faulty reasoning, and words or images that evoke a particular emotional response in the target audience may also be used.

Pseudoscience

Explanations or claims passed as being based on scientific evidence and theories, but do not rely on scientific evidence or are not obtained by improperly applying the scientific method. An example of pseudoscience is astrology, which claims that the position of celestial bodies can be used as a source of information about individuals and events on Earth. Testing such a theory would require systematic studies in which the life events of many people living in a given area would be measured simultaneously regardless of their belief in astrology and compared with the positions of the celestial bodies. However, no such studies proving the link exist.
Some theories used to be considered scientific but later turned out not to be consistent with scientific explanations of how the world works. An example of such a theory is phrenology, which was developed in the 18th century and draws conclusions about a person’s character based on the shape of his or her skull. Since the 19th century, it has been recognized as pseudoscience.
This process of reconsideration and reclassification of theories illustrates a core feature of science: scientific conclusions are constantly being tested, and knowledge is continuously being developed further. If something was considered scientifically accurate in the past, it does not mean that it will continue to be the most accurate and realistic explanation in the future. As new evidence emerges, science may change its explanations of relevant processes and phenomena to align theories with the data that researchers have.

Social media

A type of interactive online media where users can post content and interact with other users based on said content. Today, social media such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and X (formerly Twitter) have become essential venues where people follow the news, discuss current events, maintain interpersonal relationships, and are exposed to persuasive communication (such as advertising or political campaigning). In colloquial speech, social media sometimes are called social networks, but this is wrong (see the term “social networks” in this glossary.

Social networks

Acquaintance and interaction relationships. Every person who is known by an individual and in interaction with him or her is part of that individual’s social network. Social networking can mean both maintaining existing social ties and establishing new ones. Sites like Facebook, Instagram, or TikTok are often colloquially called social networks. However, social networking is not limited to these online sites, and individuals create their social networks in many other settings, including at home, work, and social events. Each individual creates his or her own social network – a social network is not something that can be developed by programmers who build online services. These sites host many social networks that overlap with or complement users’ networks in the physical world. These sites are not social networks more than a company or a city, in the sense that these also bring together different people who interact and exchange information. The correct term for the respective online services is social networking sites (online sites where social networking takes place). These sites can also be called social media. However, social media are a broader category of media that includes not only social networking sites but also other services that allow users to post their content and interact based on it (including blogs, online forums, and user collaboration platforms for joint projects).

Spyware

Software that collects certain types of information from the user’s device and sends it to third parties over the Internet. Such programs are diverse and may track the use of the Internet and other services, collect private data, passwords or other login information, information about the device’s technical parameters and vulnerabilities, etc. Spyware is sometimes installed on a device without the device owner’s knowledge. However, the surveillance may be done by a program that the user has installed because it provides useful functionality, while being unaware of the harmful nature of the program. Spying can manifest itself in various, including seemingly mundane, ways. Free apps that display ads tend to collect user-related data, which are either used to deliver targeted ads or resold.

Trolls

Individuals who deliberately behave in provocative, non-constructive, and aggressive ways in the online environment, promoting particular messages and opposing messages they disagree with. Trolls may act this way on their own, but trolling is also one of the techniques used in organized manipulation campaigns. In such cases, trolls are tasked by the client to spread certain information or messages and target specific people or opinions. Trolls may use bots (see the term in this glossary) to scale their activities. Such actions do not necessarily persuade other social media users to favor a particular opinion or position. Still, trolls may hamper the expression of certain views in public space, as the authors of those opinions may refrain from expressing their views in the face of the possibility that they would be harassed.

Truth

Compliance with reality. Truth can be considered at the level of individual facts and the level of a collection of facts and judgments made on them and knowledge created. A fact is true if there is credible evidence that supports it. For example, a given fact is true if it is consistently observed through scientific methods. However, various claims often rely on more than one discrete fact, and this can make it difficult to judge the truth of those claims. Not all combinations of true facts lead to true statements. For example, by selecting only a few facts or highlighting certain facts, it is possible to change the message significantly, and a misleading impression can potentially be created. Facts can be interpreted differently (i.e., different meanings can be assigned to them) according to the interpreter’s worldview. Human knowledge and facts about the world constantly expand, and previous knowledge is continuously tested and reevaluated. This means that our current knowledge of various topics may still be incomplete. Consequently, what is currently held to be true is not necessarily true in a universal, absolute sense. In the context of this problem, by truth, we should understand the best, most complete, accurate, and up-to-date knowledge currently available that is based on verifiable facts.

Viral content

Content that becomes popular and is widely shared in an information environment, particularly on social media. The concept is based on the analogy of the rapid spread of a viral infection from one person to another. Viral content, too, spreads among people – those who have been exposed to it want to distribute it further. Content creators often have an interest that their content reaches the largest possible audience and therefore try to give it the qualities that might make the audience want to share it. Virality can also be unplanned and sometimes even unwanted: the audience can grow larger than the content creator or publisher expected. People who do not belong to the originally intended audience may perceive the particular piece of content differently than intended, which may also have undesirable consequences.

Vlog

Video blog or regular updates on a specific topic in video format. Usually, the author is seen or heard in the videos. The thematic range of vlogs is unlimited. Many vlogs are on social media where you can upload videos, such as YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram.

Web browser

A program that allows the user of a device (computer, phone, tablet) to visit web pages. There are many different browsers – their basic functionality is similar, but they differ in appearance, some features, and the level of security and privacy provided. Since the browser processes information about the web pages that the user visits and parses the information published on these pages, including their code, the privacy and security aspects are of great importance. Popular browsers include, Google Chrome and Microsoft Edge. Worthy of highlighting is Mozilla Firefox, which is non-commercial and protects the users’ privacy.

World wide web

An information system that allows publishing documents – web pages – on the Internet and accessing them based on a shared protocol. Web pages are hypertext documents – they contain references (hyperlinks or simply links) to other such documents. Hyperlinks allow users to move from one document to another on the web. Hypertextuality, which refers to the connectivity of documents, is one of the fundamental principles of the World Wide Web. To access the World Wide Web, a browser is needed (see the corresponding explanation in this dictionary).